:: wikimiki.org ::

Arch Of Constantine

Arch of Constantine

] The Arch of Constantine is a triumphal arch in Rome, situated between the Colosseum and the Palatine Hill. It was erected to commemorate Constantine's victory over Maxentius at the Battle of Milvian Bridge on October 28, 312 AD. Dedicated in 315 AD, it is the latest of the extant triumphal arches in Rome, from which it differs by the extensive re-use of parts of earlier buildings.

General description

The arch is 21 m high, 25.7 m wide and 7.4 m deep. It has three archways, the central one being 11.5 m high and 6.5 m wide, the lateral archways 7.4 m by 3.4 m each. The lower part of the monument is built of marble blocks, the top (called attic) is brickwork revetted with marble. A staircase formed in the thickness of the arch is entered from a door at some height from the ground, in the end towards the Palatine Hill. The general design with a main part structured by detached columns and an attic with the main inscription above is modelled after the example of the Arch of Septimius Severus on the Forum Romanum. It has been suggested that the lower part of the arch is re-used from an older monument, probably from the times of the emperor Hadrian (Conforto et al., 2001; for a defence of the view that the whole arch was constructed in the 4th century, see Pensabene & Panella). The arch spans the Via Triumphalis, the way taken by the emperors when they entered the city in triumph. This route started at the Campus Martius, led through the Circus Maximus and around the Palatine Hill; immediately after the Arch of Constantine, the procession would turn left and march along the Via Sacra to the Forum Romanum and on to the Capitoline Hill, passing both the Arches of Titus and Septimius Severus. During the Middle Ages, the Arch of Constantine was incorporated into one of the family strongholds of ancient Rome. Works of restoration were first carried out in the 18th century; the last excavations have taken place in the late 1990s, just before the Great Jubilee of 2000.

Decoration

The decoration of the arch heavily uses parts of older monuments, which are given a new meaning in the context of the Constantinian building. As it celebrates the victory of Constantine, the new "historic" friezes illustrating his campaign in Italy convey the central meaning: the praise of the emperor, both in battle and in his civilian duties. The other imagery supports this purpose: decoration taken from the "golden times" of the Empire under Trajan, Hadrian and Marcus Aurelius places Constantine next to these "good emperors", and the content of the pieces evokes images of the victorious and pious ruler. Another explanation given for the re-use is the short time between the start of construction (late 312 at the earliest) and the dedication (summer 315), so the architects used existing artwork to make up for the lack of time to create new one. As yet another possible reason, it has often been suggested that the Romans of the 4th century lacked the artistic skill to produce acceptable artwork and therefore plundered the ancient buildings to adorn their contemporary monuments. This interpretation has become less prominent in more recent times, as the art of Late Antiquity has been appreciated in its own right. It is, of course, possible that a combination of two or all three of those explanations are correct, as they are not mutually exclusive.

Attic

Above the middle archway, the main inscription (see below) takes the most prominent place of the attic. It is identical on both sides of the arch. Flanking the inscription on both sides, there are pairs of relief panels above the minor archways, 8 in total. They were taken from an unknown monument erected in honour of Marcus Aurelius, and show (north side, left to right) the emperor's return to Rome after the campaign (adventus), the emperor leaving the city and saluted by a personification of the Via Flaminia, the emperor distributing money among the people (largitio), the emperor interrogating a German prisoner, (south side, left to right) a captured enemy chieftain led before the emperor, a similar scene with other prisoners, the emperor speaking to the troops (adlocutio), and the emperor sacrificing pig, sheep and bull. Together with three panels now in the Capitoline Museum, the reliefs were probably taken from a triumphal monument commemorating Marcus Aurelius' war against the Sarmatians from 169 – 175, which ended with his triumphant return in 176. On the largitio panel, the figure of Marcus Aurelius' son Commodus has been eradicated after the latter's damnatio memoriae. On top of each of the columns stand marble statues of Dacian prisoners from the times of Trajan, probably taken from the Forum of Trajan. From the same time date the two large (3 m high) panels decorating the attic on the small sides of the arch, showing scenes from the emperor's Dacian Wars. Together with the two reliefs on the inside of the central archway, they came from a large frieze celebrating the Dacian victory. The original place of this frieze was either the Forum of Trajan, as well, or the barracks of the emperor's horse guard on the Caelius.

Main section

The general layout of the main facade is identical on both sides of the arch. It is divided by four columns of Corinthian order made of Numidian yellow marble (giallo antico), one of which has been transferred into the Basilica di San Giovanni in Laterano and was replaced by a white marble column. The columns stand on bases showing victory figures on front, and captured barbarians and Roman soldiers on the sides. The spandrels of the main archway are decorated with reliefs depicting victory figures with trophies, those of the smaller archways show river gods. Column bases and spandrel reliefs are from the times of Constantine. Above each lateral archway are pairs of round reliefs dated to the times of emperor Hadrian. They display scenes of hunting and sacrificing: (north side, left to right) hunt of a boar, sacrifice to Apollo, hunt of a lion, sacrifice to Hercules, (south side, left to right) departure for the hunt, sacrifice to Silvanus, hunt of a bear, sacrifice to Diana. The head of the emperor (originally Hadrian) has been reworked in all medaillons: on the north side, into Constantine in the hunting scenes and into Licinius or Constantius I in the sacrifice scenes; on the south side, vice versa. The reliefs, c. 2 m in diameter, were framed in porphyry; this framing is only extant on the right side of the northern facade. Similar medaillons, this time of Constantinian origin, are placed on the small sides of the arch; on the eastern side, showing the Sun rising, and on the western side, the Moon, both on chariots. The main piece from the time of Constantine is the "historical" relief frieze running around the monument under the round panels, one strip above each lateral archway and at the small sides of the arch. These reliefs depict scenes from the Italian campaign of Constantine against Maxentius which was the reason for the construction of the monument. The frieze starts at the western side with the "Departure from Milan". It continues on the southern, "outward" looking face, with the siege of a city, probably Verona, which was of great importance to the war in Northern Italy; also on that face, the Battle of Milvian Bridge with Constantine's army victorious and the enemy drowning in the river Tiber. On the eastern side, Constantine and his army enter Rome; the artist here has avoided to use the imagery of the triumph, as Constantine probably did not want to be shown triumphant over the Eternal City. On the northern face, looking "towards" the city, two strips with the emperor's actions after taking possession of Rome: Constantine speaking to the citizens on the Forum Romanum, and distributing money to the people.

Inner sides of the archways

In the central archway, there is one of the large panels of Trajan's Dacian War on either wall. Inside the lateral archways, eight portraits busts (two on each wall), destroyed to such an extent that it is not possible to identify them any more.

Inscriptions

The main inscription would originally have been of bronze letters. It can still be read easily, though only the recesses in which the letters sat, and their attachment holes, remain. It reads thus, identically on both sides:

IMP · CAES · FL · CONSTANTINO · MAXIMO · P · F · AVGUSTO · S · P · Q · R · QVOD · INSTINCTV · DIVINITATIS · MENTIS · MAGNITVDINE · CVM · EXERCITV · SVO · TAM · DE · TYRANNO · QVAM · DE · OMNI · EIVS · FACTIONE · VNO · TEMPORE · IVSTIS · REM-PUBLICAM · VLTVS · EST · ARMIS · ARCVM · TRIVMPHIS · INSIGNEM · DICAVIT

Which means in English:

To the Emperor Caesar Flavius Constantinus, the greatest, pious, and blessed Augustus: because he, inspired by the divine, and by the greatness of his mind, has delivered the state from the tyrant and all of his followers at the same time, with his army and just force of arms, the Senate and People of Rome have dedicated this arch, decorated with triumphs.

The words instinctu divinitatis ("inspired by the divine") have been much commented. They are usually read as sign of Constantine's shifting religious affiliation: The Christian tradition, most notably Lactantius and Eusebius of Caesarea, relate the story of a vision of the Christian god to Constantine during the campaign, and that he was victorious in the sign of the cross at the Milvian Bridge. The official documents (esp. coins) still prominently display the Sun God until 324 AD, while Constantine started to support the Christian church from 312 on. In this situation, the vague wording of the inscription can be seen as the attempt to please all possible readers, being deliberately ambiguous, and acceptable to both pagans and Christians. As was customary, the vanquished enemy is not mentioned by name, but only referred to as "the tyrant", drawing on the notion of the rightful killing of a tyrannical ruler; together with the image of the "just war", it serves as justification of Constantine's civil war against his co-emperor Maxentius. Two short inscriptions on the inside of the central archway transport a similar message: Constantine came not as conqueror, but freed Rome from occupation:

LIBERATORI VRBIS (liberator of the city) — FUNDATORI QVIETIS (founder of peace)

Over each of the small archways, inscriptions read:

VOTIS X — VOTIS XX SIC X — SIC XX

They give a hint on the date of the arch: "Solemn vows for the 10th anniversary – for the 20th anniversary" and "as for the 10th, so for the 20th anniversary". Both refer to Constantine's decennalia, i.e. the 10th anniversary of his reign (counted from 306), which he celebrated in Rome in the summer of 315 AD. It can be assumed that the arch honouring his victory was inaugurated during his stay in the city.

References

- Pensabene, Patrizio & Panella, Clementina: Arco di Costantino: tra archeologia e archeometria, Roma 1999
- Conforto, Maria Letizia et al.: Adriano e Costantino. Le due fasi dell'arco nella Valle del Colosseo, Milano 2001

External links

- [http://www.inrometoday.it/phototour/romanforum/costantinoarch/ The Constantines's Arch] Costantino's Arch besdie the Colosseum: photos and historic description.
- [http://sights.seindal.dk/sight/299_Arch_of_Constantine.html Detailed discussion of the arch, with illustrations]
- [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Italy/Lazio/Roma/Rome/Arch_of_Constantine/inscriptions.html Inscriptions illustrated and discussed]
- [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=41.889683,12.490404&spn=0.003604,0.006809&t=k&hl=en Google Maps satellite image] Category:Triumphal arches Category:Ancient Roman architecture Category:Monuments and sights of Rome Category:Constantine Dynasty

Triumphal arch

]] , India]] A triumphal arch is a structure in the shape of a monumental archway, usually built to celebrate a victory in war. The arch is invariably a free-standing structure, quite separate from city gates or walls. In its simplest form a triumphal arch consists of two pillars connected by an arch, crowned with a superstructure or attic on which a statue might be mounted or which bears commemorative inscriptions. More elaborate triumphal arches have more than one archway, typically three or five of varying sizes.

Roman triumphal arches

attic, Algeria ]] The tradition dates back to Ancient Rome and is connected to the custom of the Roman triumphs granted by the Senate. Surprisingly little is known about how the Romans used triumphal arches; the only ancient author who discussed them was Pliny the Elder, writing in the 1st century AD. They are not mentioned at all by Vitruvius, the 1st century BC writer on Roman architecture. Pliny describes them as being honorary monuments of unusual importance, erected to commemorate triumphs. By the 2nd century arches were being erected to commemorate other events, such as the surviving triumphal arch at Ancona, erected by a grateful city to commemorate Trajan's improvements to the harbor. It is unclear when the Romans first began erecting triumphal arches. They originated some time during the Roman Republican era, during which time three were erected in Rome, the earliest being one to Lucius Stertinius built in 196 BC. These appear to have been temporary structures and none now survive. Most triumphal arches were built during the Roman Empire. By the 4th century AD, 36 triumphal arches were recorded as existing in Rome. Only five now survive (see list below). The arches of Rome became increasingly elaborate over the centuries. They were at first very simple symbolic temporary gateways to the city, being built of brick or stone with a semicircular arched heading and hung with trophies of captured arms. Later arches were built of high-quality marble with a large arch in the middle, and sometimes two smaller ones on each side, adorned with columns and bas-reliefs and crowned with statues, often a quadriga. The piers of the arch were often decorated with imitation pillars, usually of the Corinthian order.

Post-Roman triumphal arches

Triumphal arches in the Roman style were revived during the Renaissance, when there was a Europe-wide upwelling of interest in the art and architecture of ancient Rome. Between the 16th and 19th century, kings and emperors erected numerous triumphal arches in conscious imitation of the Roman tradition. One of the earliest was the temporary arch erected in Rome to celebrate the election in 1513 of Pope Leo X. The Emperor Maximilian I commissioned the artist Albrecht Dürer to design an elaborately decorated monumental arch for him, though it was never actually built. Louis XIV of France and Napoleon Bonaparte both erected arches to commemorate their military triumphs, most famously the Arc de Triomphe in Paris - still the world's largest. Arches were erected for similar purposes in England, the United States, Germany, Russia and Spain, amongst other countries. Temporary triumphal arches are still constructed, intended to be used for a celebratory parade or ceremony and then be dismantled afterwards.

List of triumphal arches

Permanent monumental triumphal arches include:

Algeria

- Timgad, Trajan's Arch, partially restored arch in a Roman colonial town

Australia

- Ballarat, Arch of Victory

Austria

- Heidentor, Roman-arch in Carnuntum
- Siegestor, Innsbruck
- Burgtor, Vienna

Belgium

- Arch of the Cinquantenaire, Brussels (erected 1880-1905)
- Menin Gate, Ypres

India

- India Gate, New Delhi
- Gateway of India, Mumbai
Iraq

- Hands of Victory, Baghdad
Ireland

- Fusileer's Arch, Dublin
Italy

- Arch of Trajan, Ancona, erected 113
- Augustan Arch, Aosta
- Arch of Trajan, Beneventum, the Porta Aurea, erected 114
- Arco Campano, Capua
- Arch of Augustus, Fano
- Arch of the House of Lorraine, Florence, erected 1738 - 1759: the first freestanding permanent triumphal arch in Italy since Antiquity
- Arco della Pace, Milan, erected 1807 - 1838
- Arch of Augustus, Rimini, erected 27 CE
- Arch of Constantine, Rome erected 312 - 315
- Arch of Drusus, Rome, erected to honor Nero Claudius Drusus
- Arch of Gallienus, Rome
- Arch of Septimius Severus, Rome, erected 203
- Arch of Titus, Rome (81)
- Susa, erected 7 BCE
- Arco dei Gavi, Verona
Korea

- Arch of Triumph (Pyongyang)
Laos

- Patuxay, Vientiane
Libya

- Arch of Tiberius, Leptis Magna, erected 35 CE
- Arch of Septimius Severus, Leptis Magna
Romania

- Arcul de Triumf, Bucharest
Russia

- Red Gate, Moscow - demolished
- Triuphal arch on Poklonnaya Hill, Kutuzovskiy prospekt, Moscow
- Moscow Triumphal Gate, St Petersburg
- Narva Triumphal Gate, St Petersburg
- Cossack triumphal arches in Novocherkassk
- Orlov gates, Gatchina
Spain

- Arc de Triomf, Barcelona
- Puerta de las Granadas, Granada
- Puerta de Alcalá, Plaza de la Independencia, Madrid
Syria

- Arch of Septimus Severus, Latakia
- Palmyra
Turkey

- Anazarbus
Ukraine

- Arch of Catherine the Great, Novgorod-Seversky
United States

- Grand Army Plaza, Brooklyn
- Soldiers and Sailors Memorial Arch, Grand Army Plaza, Brooklyn, New York
- Monumental Arch, Galveston, Texas (1987-1990)
- Washington Square, New York, New York
- Newport News Victory Arch, Newport News, Virginia
See also

- city gate
- Roman architecture
External link

- [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA
- /Arcus_Triumphalis.html Lacus Curtius website:] "Triumphal arch" from William Smith, A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, John Murray, London, 1875
- Category:Roman awards and decorations ko:개선문 ja:凱旋門

Colosseum

See also the band Colosseum. Colosseum The Colosseum or Coliseum, originally known as the Flavian Amphitheatre (lat. Amphitheatrum Flavium), is an amphitheatre in Rome, capable of seating 50,000 spectators, which was once used for gladiatorial combat. Construction was initiated by Emperor Vespasian and completed by his sons, Titus and Domitian, between AD 72 and AD 81. It was built at the site of Nero's enormous palace, the Domus Aurea. The Colosseum's name is derived from a colossus (a 130-foot, or 40-metre, statue) of Nero which once stood nearby. The Colosseum is located at .

Construction

40-metre The construction of the Colosseum began under the rule of Emperor Vespasian in AD 72 and was completed by his son, Titus, in the 80s AD. It was built at the site of Nero's enormous palace, the Domus Aurea, which had been built after the great fire of Rome in AD 64. Some historians believe that the construction of the Colosseum might have been financed by the looting of King Herod the Great's Temple in Jerusalem which occurred about AD 70. Dio Cassius said that 9,000 wild animals were killed in the one hundred days of celebration which inaugurated the amphitheatre opening. The arena floor was covered with sand, presumably to allow the blood to drain away.

Games

The Colosseum hosted large-scale spectacular games that included fights between animals (venationes), the killing of prisoners by animals (see: Zoophilia: Roman games and circus) and other executions (noxii), naval battles (naumachiae, via flooding the arena) up until AD 81, and combats between gladiators (munera). It has been estimated that several hundreds of thousands died in the Colosseum games. Saint Ignatius of Antioch was martyred there.

History of the name Colosseum

The Colosseum's name is derived from a colossus (a 130-foot or 40-metre statue) of Nero nearby. This statue was later remodeled by Nero's successors into the likeness of Sol, the sun god, by adding the appropriate solar crown. Nero's head was also replaced several times by the head of succeeding emperors. At some time during the Middle Ages, the statue disappeared; experts suspect that, since the statue was bronze, it was melted down for reuse. After the colossus' disposal, the link to it seems to have been forgotten over time, and the name was corrupted to Coliseum in the Middle Ages. Both names are frequently used in modern English, but Flavian Amphitheatre is generally unknown. In Italy, it is still known as il colosseo, but other Romance languages have come to use forms such as le colisée and el coliseo.

Description

Romance language The Colosseum measures 48 metres high, 188 metres long, and 156 metres wide. The wooden arena floor was 86 metres by 54 metres, and covered by sand. Its elliptical shape kept the players from retreating to a corner, and allowed the spectators to be closer to the action than a circle would allow. The Colosseum was ingeniously designed. It has been said that most spectacle venues (stadiums, and similar) have been influenced by features of the Colosseum's structure, even well into modern times. Seating (cavea) was divided into different sections. The podium, the first level of seating, was for the Roman senators; the emperor's private, cushioned, marble box was also located on this level. Above the podium was the maenianum primum, for the other Roman aristocrats who were not in the senate. The third level, the maenianum secundum, was divided into three sections. The lower part (the immum) was for wealthy citizens, while the upper part (the summum) was for poor citizens. A third, wooden section (the maenianum secundum in legneis) was a wooden structure at the very top of the building, added by Domitian. It was standing room only, and was for lower-class women. stadium After the Colosseum's first two years in operation, Vespasian's younger son (the newly-designated Emperor Domitian) ordered the construction of the hypogeum (literally meaning "underground"), a two-level subterranean network of tunnels and cages where gladiators and animals were held before contests began. Numerous trap doors in the floor provided instant access to the arena for caged animals and scenery pieces concealed underneath; larger hinged platforms, called hegmata, provided access for elephants and the like. Today the arena floor no longer exists, though the hypogeum walls and corridors are clearly visible in the ruins of the structure. The entire base of the Colosseum covers an area equivalent to 6 acres (160,000 m²). There are also tunnels, still in existence, configured to flood and evacuate water from the Colosseum floor, so that naval battles could be staged prior to the hypogeum's construction. Recent archaeological research has shown evidence of drain pipes connected to the City's sewer system and a large underground holding tank connected to a nearby aqueduct. aqueduct Another innovative feature of the Colosseum was its cooling system, known as the valerium, which consisted of a canvas-covered, net-like structure made of ropes, with a hole in the center. This roof covered two-thirds of the arena, and sloped down towards the center to catch the wind and provide a breeze for the audience. Sailors, standing on special platforms, manipulated the ropes on command. The Colosseum incorporated a number of vomitoria — passageways that open into a tier of seats from below or behind. The vomitoria were designed so that the immense venue could fill in 15 minutes, and be evacuated in as little as 5 minutes. Each entrance and exit was numbered, as was each staircase. There were 80 entrances at ground level, 76 for ordinary spectators, two for the imperial family, and two for the gladiators. Spectators were given tickets in the form of numbered pottery shards, which directed them to the appropriate section. The vomitoria quickly dispersed people into their seats and, upon conclusion of the event, disgorged them with abruptness into the surrounding streets (giving rise, presumably, to the name).

Later history

The Colosseum was in continuous use until 217, when it was damaged by fire after it was struck by lightning. It was restored in 238 and gladiatorial games continued until Christianity gradually put an end to those parts of them which included the death of humans. The building was used for various purposes, mostly venationes (animal hunts), until 524. Two earthquakes (in 442 and 508) caused a great damage to the structure. In the Middle Ages, it was severely damaged by further earthquakes (847 and 1349), and was then converted into a fortress. The marble that originally covered the façade was burned to make quicklime. During the Renaissance, but mostly in the Baroque age, the ruling Roman families (from which many popes came) used it as a source of marble for the construction of St. Peter's Basilica and the private Palazzi. A famous description is in the saying Quod non fecerunt Barbari, fecerunt Barberini; "What the Barbarians weren't able to do, was done by the Barberinis" (one such family). The Venerable Bede (c. 672–735) wrote:[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04101b.htm]

Quandiu stabit coliseus, stabit et Roma	(As long as the Colosseum stands, so shall Rome);
Quando cadit coliseus, cadet et Roma	(When the Colosseum falls, so shall Rome);
Quando cadet Roma, cadet et mundus	(When Rome falls, so shall the world).

Note the use of coliseus, i.e. which made the name a masculine noun. This form is no longer in use. Venerable Bede In 1749, in a very early example of historic preservation, Pope Benedict XIV forbade the use of the Colosseum as a quarry. He consecrated the building to the Passion of Christ and installed Stations of the Cross, declaring it sanctified by the blood of the Christian martyrs who were thought to have perished there. Later popes initiated various stabilization and restoration projects. Every Good Friday the pope leads a procession within the ellipse in memory of Christian martyrs.[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04101b.htm]. It is presumed that the majority of Christian martyrdom in Rome took place at the Circus Maximus. In 2000 there was a diffused protest in Italy against the death penalty all over the world (in Italy it was abolished in 1948); several manifestations took place in front of the Colosseum. The illumination of the Colosseum is always on, and so it was at that time, but in that period, as a gesture against capital punishment, the local authorities of Rome changed the colour of the night time illumination from white to gold whenever a person condemned to the death penalty anywhere in the world gets commuted or released. [http://edition.cnn.com/SPECIALS/views/y/2000/02/young.italydeath.feb24/] According to the current political division of the center of Rome, the Colosseum is placed in rione Monti.

Hollywood and the Colosseum

The Colosseum has a prominent place in many motion pictures. In 1954's Demetrius and the Gladiators Emperor Caligula sentences the Christian Demetrius to fight in the Colosseum's gladiator games. In the Science Fiction film The Core, the Colosseum is destroyed by intense lightning strikes, which blast it to bits. In director Ridley Scott's 2000 film Gladiator, the Colosseum was re-created via computer-generated imagery (CGI) to "restore" it to the glory of its heyday in the 2nd century. However, many of the buildings depicted surrounding the colosseum never existed.

Flora

2nd century The Colosseum has a wide and well-documented history on the flora that grows in the amphitheatre. From 1643 on, when doctor Domenico Panaroli started to make a list of all plants in the Colosseum, there has been a total of 684 species. The peak was in 1855 (420 species), which decreased to 242 today. 200 of the species were present from the time that the first list was compiled through now. The variety of different kinds of plants can be explained by the change of climate in Rome throughout the centuries. Bird migration, flower blooming, the growth of Rome that caused the Colosseum to not be on the outside skirts of the city anymore and deliberate transport of species are other ways to clearify the wide stream of plants.

External links

- [http://maps.google.com/maps?q=rome,+italy&ll=41.890106,12.492142&spn=0.005023,0.008664&t=h&hl=en Google Maps satellite view of Colosseum]
- For broadband: [http://rome.arounder.com/colosseo/fullscreen.html Interactive high quality fullscreen QTVR panoramas] :also available for low bandwidth in java: http://rome.arounder.com/colosseo/java.html
- [http://www.activitaly.it/infobase/en/show/1018 The Colosseum on the interactive map of Rome by Activitaly]
- [http://www.compart-multimedia.com/virtuale/us/roma/colosseum.htm The Roman Colosseum, Rome] virtual reality movies and pictures
- [http://www.the-colosseum.net The COLOSSEUM – a site on the Roman amphitheatre]
- [http://www.artlex.com/ArtLex/r/images/roman_colosse.cutaway.gif A cut away view showing internal construction]
- [http://www.lauralee.com/news/romanplants.htm Colosseum's Flora] Category:Ancient Roman architecture Category:Flavian Dynasty Category:Monuments and sights of Rome ja:コロッセオ

Constantine I of the Roman Empire

Gaius Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus (Latin: IMP CAESAR FLAVIVS CONSTANTINVS PIVS FELIX INVICTVS AVGVSTVS ¹) (February 27, 272–May 22, 337), commonly known as Constantine I or Constantine the Great, was proclaimed Augustus by his troops on July 25,306 and ruled an ever-growing portion of the Roman Empire until his death. Constantine is famed for his refounding of Byzantium (modern Istanbul) as "Nova Roma" (New Rome) or Constantinople (Constantine's City). Constantine is best remembered in modern times for the Edict of Milan in 313 and the Council of Nicaea in 325, which fully legalized and then legitimized Christianity in the Empire for the first time. These actions are considered major factors in that religion's spread, and his reputation as the "first Christian Emperor" has been promulgated by historians from Lactantius and Eusebius of Caesarea to the present day.

Early life

Eusebius of Caesarea]] Constantine was born at Naissus,(today's Niš, Serbia, Serbia and Montenegro) in Upper Moesia, to Greek general Constantius I Chlorus, and his first wife Helena, an innkeeper's daughter who at the time was an adolescent of only sixteen years. His father left his mother around 292 to marry Flavia Maximiana Theodora, daughter or step-daughter of the Western Roman Emperor Maximian. Theodora would give birth to six half-siblings of Constantine, including Julius Constantius. Young Constantine served at the court of Diocletian in Nicomedia, after the appointment of his father as one of the two caesares(junior emperors) of the Tetrarchy in 293. In 305, the Augustus, Maximian, abdicated, and Constantius succeeded to the position. However, Constantius fell sick during an expedition against the Picts and Scots of Caledonia, and died on July 25, 306. Constantine managed to be at his deathbed in Eboracum (York) of Roman Britain, where the loyal general Chrocus, of Alamannic descent, and the troops loyal to his father's memory proclaimed him an Augustus ("Emperor"). For the next eighteen years, he fought a series of battles and wars of consolidation that first obtained him co-rule with the Eastern Roman Emperor, and then finally leadership of a reunified Roman Empire.

Constantine and Christianity

Constantine is perhaps best known for being the first Roman Emperor to freely allow Christianity. Christian historians ever since Lactantius have adhered to the view that Constantine "adopted" Christianity as a kind of replacement for the official Roman paganism. Despite the questions surrounding Constantine's Christianity, he is celebrated as a major Saint of Eastern Orthodoxy. Though he was not baptized until he was on his deathbed, his conversion, according to official Christian sources, was the immediate result of an omen before his victory in the Battle of Milvian Bridge, October 28, 312. Upon seeing this vision, Constantine is said to have instituted a new standard to be carried into battle called the labarum. Constantine and Licinius' Edict of Milan (313) removed penalties for professing Christianity, under which many were martyred in previous persecutions of Christians, and returned confiscated Church property. After the Edict, new avenues were opened to Christians, including the right to compete with pagan Romans in the traditional cursus honorum for high government positions, and greater acceptance into general civil society. New churches were allowed to be constructed and Christian leadership became increasingly bold — Christian bishops took aggressive public stances that were unheard of among other religions. As a result, Church controversies, which had been lively within the Christian communities since the mid-2nd century, now flared in public schisms, often with violence. Constantine saw quelling religious disorder as the divinely-appointed emperor's duty and eventually called the First Council of Nicaea (May 20 - July 25, 325) to settle some of the doctrinal problems plaguing the early church, notably Arianism.

Persian Reaction

Beyond the limites, east of the Euphrates, the Sassanid rulers of the Persian Empire had usually tolerated their Christians. With the edicts of toleration in the Roman Empire, Christians in Persia would now be regarded as allies of Persia's ancient enemy, and were thus persecuted. A letter supposedly from Constantine to Shapur II of Persia and alleged to have been written in c. 324 urged Shapur to protect the Christians in his realm. Shapur II wrote to his generals: :You will arrest Simon, chief of the Christians. You will keep him until he he turns to girl and signs this document and consents to collect for us a double tax and double tribute from the Christians … for we Gods have all the trials of war and they have nothing but repose and pleasure. They inhabit our territory and agree with Caesar, our enemy. (quoted in Freya Stark, Rome on the Euphrates 1967, p. 375)

Constantine's Life and Actions after The Edict of Milan

Coins struck for emperors often reveal details of their personal iconography. During the early part of Constantine's rule, representations first of Mars and then (from 310) of Apollo as Sun god consistently appear on the reverse of the coinage. Mars had been associated with the Tetrarchy, and Constantine's use of this symbolism served to emphasize the legitimacy of his rule. After his breach with his father's old colleague Maximian in 309–310, Constantine began to claim legitimate descent from the 3rd century emperor Marcus Aurelius Claudius Gothicus, the hero of the Battle of Naissus (September, 268). The Augustan History of the 4th century reports Constantine's paternal grandmother Claudia to be a daughter of Crispus, Crispus being a reported brother of both Claudius II and Quintillus. Historians however suspect this account to be a genealogical fabrication to flatter Constantine. fabrication fabrication with the chi-rho.]] Gothicus had claimed the divine protection of Apollo-Sol Invictus. In mid-310, two years before the victory at the Milvian Bridge, Constantine reportedly experienced the publicly announced vision in which Apollo-Sol Invictus appeared to him with omens of success. Thereafter the reverses of his coinage were dominated for several years by his "companion, the unconquered Sol" — the inscriptions read SOLI INVICTO COMITI. The depiction represents Apollo with a solar halo, Helios-like, and the globe in his hands. In the 320s Constantine has a halo of his own. There are also coins depicting Apollo driving the chariot of the Sun on a shield Constantine is holding and another in 312 shows the Christian chi-rho on a helmet Constantine is wearing. Constantine was also known for being ruthless with his political enemies, deposing the Eastern Roman Emperor Licinius, his brother-in-law, by strangulation in 325 even though he had publicly promised not to execute him upon Licinius' surrender in 324. In 326, Constantine executed first his eldest son Crispus and a few months later his own second wife Fausta. (Crispus was the only known son of Constantine by his first wife Minervina). There are rumours of step-mother and step-son having had an affair which caused Constantine's jealousy. The rumours were reported however by 5th century historian Zosimus and 12th century historian Joannes Zonaras. Their sources are not stated. Family influence is thought to account for a personal adoption of Christianity: Helena is said to be "probably born a Christian" though virtually nothing is known of her background, save that her mother was the daughter of an innkeeper and her father a successful soldier, a career that excluded overt Christians. Helena became known later in life for numerous pilgrimages. Constantine, following a widespread custom, was not baptized until close to his death in 337, when his choice fell upon the Arian bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia, who happened, despite his being an ally of Arius, to still be the bishop of the region. Also, Eusebius was a close friend of Constantine's sister; she probably secured his recall from exile. Arius The great staring eyes in the iconography of Constantine, though not specifically Christian, show how official images were moving away from early imperial conventions of realistic portrayal towards schematic representations: the Emperor as Emperor, not merely as this particular individual Constantine, with his characteristic broad jaw and cleft chin. The large staring eyes will loom larger as the 4th century progresses: compare the early 5th century silver coinage of Theodosius I.

Later Life

His victory in 312 over Maxentius at the Battle of Milvian Bridge resulted in his becoming Western Augustus, or ruler of the entire Western Roman Empire. He gradually consolidated his military superiority over his rivals in the crumbling Tetrarchy. In the year 320, Licinius, emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire, reneged on the religious freedom promised by the Edict of Milan in 313 and began another persecution of the Christians. This was a puzzling inconsistency since Constantia, half-sister of Constantine and wife of Licinius, was an influential Christian. It became a challenge to Constantine in the west, climaxing in the great civil war of 324. The armies were so large another like these would not be seen again until at least the 14th century. Licinius, aided by Goth mercenaries, represented the past and the ancient faith of Paganism. Constantine and his Franks marched under the Christian standard of the labarum, and both sides saw the battle in religious terms. Supposedly outnumbered, but fired by their zeal, Constantine's army emerged victorious. He was the sole emperor of the entire Roman Empire. (MacMullen 1969) Roman Empire, c. 1000)]] This battle represented the passing of old Rome, and the beginnings of the Eastern Empire as a center of learning, prosperity, and cultural preservation. Constantine rebuilt the city of Byzantium which was said to have been founded by colonists from the Greek city of Megara under Byzas in 667 BC. He renamed the city Nova Roma (New Rome), providing it with a Senate and civic offices similar to the older Rome, and the new city was protected by the alleged True Cross, the Rod of Moses and other holy relics. The figures of old gods were replaced and often assimilated into Christian symbolism. On the site of a temple to Aphrodite was built the new Basilica of the Apostles. Generations later there was the story that a Divine vision lead Constantine to this spot, and an angel no one else could see, led him on a circuit of the new walls. After his death it was renamed Constantinopolis (or Constantinople, "Constantine's City"), and gradually became the capital of the empire. (MacMullen 1969) Constantine also passed laws making the occupations of butcher and baker hereditary, and more importantly, supported converting the coloni (tenant farmers) into serfs — laying the foundation for European society during the Middle Ages. In his later life he even turned to preaching, giving his own sermons in the palace before his court and invited crowds. His sermons preached harmony at first, but gradually turned more confrontational with the old pagan ways. The reason for this later "change of heart" remains conjectural. However, pagans still received appointments, even up to the end of his life. Exerting his absolute power, the army recited his composed Latin prayer in an attempt to convert them to Christianity, which failed. He began a large building program of churches in the Holy Land, which while greatly expanding the faith also allowed considerable increase in the power and wealth of the clergy.

Constantine's Legal Standards

Constantine's laws in many ways improved those of his predecessors, though they also reflect his more violent age. Some examples:
- For the first time, girls could not be abducted.
- A punishment of death was mandated to anyone collecting taxes over the authorized amount.
- A prisoner was no longer to be kept in total darkness, but must be given the outdoors and daylight.
- A condemned man was allowed to die in the arena, but he could not be branded on his "heavenly beautified" face, just on the feet.
- Parents caught allowing their daughters to be seduced were to have molten lead poured down their throats.
- Gladiatorial games were ordered to be eliminated in 325, although this had little real effect.
- A slave master's rights were limited, but a slave could still be beaten to death.
- Crucifixion was abolished for reasons of Christian piety, but was replaced with hanging, to show there was Roman law and justice.
- Easter could be publicly celebrated.
- Sunday was declared a day of rest, on which markets were banned and public offices were closed (except for the purpose of freeing slaves). There were however no restrictions on farming work. (MacMullen 1969, New Catholic Encyclopedia 1908)

Constantine's Courts and Appointees

Constantine respected cultivation and Christianity, and his court was composed of older, respected, and honored men. Leading Roman families that refused Christianity were denied positions of power, yet two-thirds of his top government was non-Christian. (MacMullen 1969,1984, New Catholic Encyclopedia 1908) "From Pagan temples Constantine had his statue removed. The repair of Pagan temples that had decayed was forbidden. These funds were given to the favored Christian clergy. Offensive forms of worship, either Christian or Pagan, were suppressed. At the dedication of Constantinople in 330 a ceremony half Pagan and half Christian was performed, in the market place, the Cross of Christ was placed over the head of the Sun-God's chariot. There was a singing of hymns." (New Catholic Encyclopedia 1908)

Constantine's Legacy

Although he earned his honorific of "The Great" from Christian historians long after he had died, he could have claimed the title on his military achievements alone. In addition to reuniting the empire under one emperor, Constantine won major victories over the Franks and Alamanni (306–308), the Franks again (313–314), the Visigoths in 332 and the Sarmatians in 334. In fact, by 336, Constantine had actually reoccupied most of the long-lost province of Dacia, which Aurelian had been forced to abandon in 271. At the time of his death, he was planning a great expedition to put an end to raids on the eastern provinces from the Persian Empire. He was succeeded by his three sons by Fausta, Constantine II, Constantius II and Constans, who secured their hold on the empire with the murder of a number of relatives and supporters of Constantine. The last member of his dynasty was his nephew and son-in-law, Julian, who attempted to restore paganism.

Legend and Donation of Constantine

In later years, historical facts were clouded by legend. It was considered inappropriate that Constantine was baptized only on his death-bed and by a bishop of questionable orthodoxy, and hence a legend emerged that Pope Silvester I (314-335) had cured the pagan Emperor from leprosy. According to this legend, Constantine was baptized after that and donated buildings to the Pope. In the 8th century, a document called the "Donation of Constantine" first appeared, in which the freshly converted Constantine hands the temporal rule over Rome, Italy and the Occident to the Pope. In the High Middle Ages, this document was used to and accepted as the basis for the the Pope's temporal powers, though it was denounced as a forgery by Emperor Otto III and lamented as the root of papal worldliness by the poet Dante Alighieri. In the 15th century renewed philological expertise proved the document a forgery.

Constantine in Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia

Because of his fame and his being proclaimed Emperor in Britain, Constantine was later also considered a British King. In the 11th century, the English chronicler Geoffrey of Monmouth published a work called Historia Regum Britanniae, in which he narrates the supposed history of the Britons and their kings from the Trojan War to King Arthur and the Anglo-Saxon conquest. In this work, Geoffrey claimed that Constantine's mother Helena was actually the daughter of "King Cole", the mythical King of the Britons and eponymous founder of Colchester. A daughter for King Cole had not previously figured in the lore, at least not as it has survived in writing, and this pedigree is likely to reflect Geoffrey's desire to create a continuous line of regal descent. It was indecorous, Geoffrey considered, that a king might have less-than-noble ancestors. Monmouth also said that Constantine was proclaimed "King of the Britons" at York, rather than Roman Emperor.

Notes

1- In the English language, Constantine's official Imperial title is Imperator Caesar Flavius Constantine Augustus, the pious, the fortunate, the undefeated. After 312, he added maximus ("the greatest"), and after 325 replaced invictus ("undefeated") with victor, as invictus reminded of Sol Invictus, the Sun God.

External links

- [http://www.roman-emperors.org/conniei.htm RomanEmperors.org Vita of Constantine]; with bibliography
- Diocletian: Edicts against the Christians [http://www.tacentral.com/echmiadzin/Diocletian.htm]
- [http://www.geocities.com/Heartland/Valley/8920/European/edictofmilan.htm The Edict of Milan AD 313]
- [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf202.ii.iv.vii.html Constantine's open letter] Letter to Alexander and Arius
- [http://odur.let.rug.nl/~drijvers/ammianus/ Ammianus Marcellinus on-line project]

References and Further reading

- Ancient History
- Chuvin, Pierre, 1990, B. A. Archer, translator, A Chronicle of the Last Pagans (Harvard) ISBN 0-674-12970-9
- Dodds, E. R., 1964 The Greeks and the Irrational (University of California)
- Dodds, E. R., 1965. Pagan and Christian in an Age of Anxiety: Some Aspects of the Religious Experience from Marcus Aurelius to Constantine (Cambridge)
- Jones, A.H.M., 1949. Constantine and the Conversion of Europe (Macmillan) The Association of Ancient Historians has honored Ramsay MacMullen as being the finest ancient historian of the Roman Empire in our time. Some may find him difficult, he speaks the language of the professional scholar, but reading his works is certainly worth the time and effort.
- MacMullen, Ramsay, 1969. Constantine, (Dial Press)
- MacMullen, Ramsay, 1984, Christianizing the Roman Empire A.D. 100-400, (Yale)
- MacMullen, Ramsay, 1990. Changes in the Roman Empire: Essays in the Ordinary (Princeton)
- MacMullen, Ramsay, 1966. Enemies of the Roman Order: Treason, Unrest, and Alienation (Harvard)
- Wilken, Robert L., 1984 Christians As the Romans Saw Them (Yale)
- Eusebius of Caesarea, The Life of the blessed Emperor Constantine in 4 books from AD 306 to 337.
- [http://www.1911encyclopedia.org Encyclopaedia Britannica 1911:] Constantine
- Lactantius , (AD 240-320) Of the Manner the in Which the Persecutors Died,
- [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04295c.htm "Constantine the Great"], by Charles G. Herbermann and Georg Grupp. The Catholic Encyclopedia (1908)
- [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05121a.htm "Donatists"], by John Chapman. The Catholic Encyclopedia (1909)
- Sources on the Antonine Plague
- Galen, On the Natural Faculties
- Marcus Cornelius Fronto, Letters of Marcus Cornelius Fronto
- Vlassis R. Rassias,"Es Edafos Ferein", 2nd edition, Athens, 2000, ISBN 960-7748-20-4 Category:272 births Category:337 deaths Category:Roman emperors Category:Late Antiquity Category:Romans in Britain Category:Ancient Roman Christianity Category:Constantine Dynasty Category:British traditional history ko:콘스탄틴 1세 ja:コンスタンティヌス1世

Maxentius

Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maxentius (c. 278-312), Western Roman Emperor (306-312), was the son of Maximian, and the son-in-law of Galerius.

Birth and early life

Maxentius' exact date of birth is unknown; it was probably around 278. He was the son of the (later) emperor Maximian and his wife Eutropia. As his father became emperor in 285, he was regarded as crown prince who would once follow his father on the throne. He seems not to have served in any important military or administrative position during Diocletian's and his father's reign, though. Early (the exact date is unknown) he married Valeria Maximilla, the daughter of Galerius. He had two sons, Valerius Romulus (c. 295 – 309) and an unknown one. In 305, Diocletian and Maximian resigned, the former caesares Constantius and Galerius became Augusti. Although with Constantine and Maxentius two sons of emperors were available, they were left out from the new imperial college, and Severus and Maximinus Daia were appointed Caesars. Some sources (Lactantius, Epitome) state that Galerius hated Maxentius and used his influence on Diocletian that Maxentius be ignored in the succession; maybe Diocletianus also thought that he was not qualified for the military duties of the imperial office. Maxentius retired to an estate some miles from Rome. When Constantius died in 306, his son Constantine was crowned emperor on July 25 and subsequently accepted by Galerius into the imperial college as caesar. This set the precedence for Maxentius' accession later in the same year.

Accession

When rumours reached the capital that the emperors tried to subject the Roman population to the capitation like every other city of the empire, and wanted to dissolve the remains of the Praetorian Guard which were still stationed at Rome, riots broke out. A group of officers of the city's garrisons (Zosimus calls them Marcellianus, Marcellus and Lucianus) turned to Maxentius to accept the imperial purple, probably judging that the official recognition which was granted to Constantine would not be withheld from Maxentius, son of an emperor as well. Maxentius accepted the honour, promised donations to the city's troops, and was publicly acclaimed emperor on October 28, 306. The usurpation obviously went largely without bloodshed (Zosimus names only one victim); the prefect of Rome went over to Maxentius and retained his office. Apparently the conspirators turned to Maximian as well, who had retired to a palace in Lucania, but he declined to resume power for the time being. Maxentius managed to be recognized as emperor in central and southern Italy, the islands of Corsica, Sardinia and Sicily, and the African provinces. Northern Italy remained under the control of the western Augustus Severus, who resided in Milan. At first, Maxentius refrained from using the titles Augustus or Caesar at first and styled himself princeps invictus (Unconquered Prince), in the hope of obtaining recognition of his reign by the senior emperor Galerius. However, the latter refused to do so. Apart from his alleged antipathy towards Maxentius, Galerius probably wanted to avoid that others followed the examples of Constantine and Maxentius and declared themselves emperors. Constantine firmly controlled his father's army and territories, and Galerius could pretend that his accession was part of the regular succession in the tetrarchy, but neither was the case with Maxentius: he would be the fifth emperor, and he had only few troops at his command. Galerius reckoned that it would be not too difficult to quell the usurpation, and early in 307, the Augustus Severus marched on Rome with a large army. The majority of this army consisted of soldiers who had fought under Maxentius' father Maximian for years, and as Severus reached Rome, the majority of his army went over to Maxentius, rightful heir of their former commander, who dealt out a large amount of money. When Maximian himself finally left his retreat and returned to Rome to assume the imperial office once again and support his son, Severus with the rest of his army retreated to Ravenna. Shortly after he surrendered to Maximian, who promised that his life be spared. After the defeat of Severus, Maxentius took possession of northern Italy up to the Alps and the Istrian peninsula to the east, and assumed the title of Augustus, who (in his eyes) had become vacant with the surrender of Severus.

Emperor

The joint rule of Maxentius and Maximian in Rome was tested further when Galerius himself marched to Italy in the summer of 307 with an even larger army. While negotiating with the invader, Maxentius could repeat what he did to Severus: by the promise of large sums of money, and the authority of Maximian, many soldiers of Galerius defected to him. Galerius was forced to withdraw, plundering Italy on his way. Some time during the invasion, Severus was put to death by Maxentius, probably at Tres Tabernae near Rome (the exact circumstances of his death are not certain). After the failed campaign of Galerius, Maxentius' reign over Italy and Africa was firmly established. Beginning in 307 already, he tried to arrange friendly contacts with Constantine, and in the summer of that year, Maximian travelled to Gaul, where Constantine married his daughter Fausta and was in turn appointed Augustus by the senior emperor. However, Constantine tried to avoid breaking with Galerius, and did not openly support Maxentius during the invasion. In 308, probably April, Maximian tried to depose his son in an assembly of soldiers in Rome; surprisingly to him, the present troops remained faithful to his son, and he had to flee to Constantine. In the conference of Carnuntum in the autumn of 308, Maxentius was once again denied recognition as legitimate emperor, and Licinius was appointed Augustus with the task of regaining the usurper's domain. Late in 308, Domitius Alexander was acclaimed emperor in Carthage, and the African provinces seceded from Maxentian rule. This produced a dangerous situation for Maxentius, as Africa was critical to Rome's food supply. Under the command of his praetorian prefect Rufius Volusianus, he sent a small army to Africa which defeated and executed Alexander in 310 or 311; Maxentius used the opportunity to seize the wealth of Alexander's supporters, and to bring large amounts of grain to Rome. Also in 310, he lost Istria to Licinius, who could not continue the campaign, however, as Galerius fell mortally ill and died the next year. Maxentius' eldest son Valerius Romulus died in 309, at the age of c. 14, was consecrated and buried in a mausoleum in the Villa of Maxentius at the Via Appia. After the death of Maximian in 309 or 310, relations with Constantine rapidly deteriorated, and Maxentius allied with Maximinus to counter an alliance between Constantine and Licinius. He allegedly tried to secure the province of Raetia north of the Alps, thereby dividing the realms of Constantine and Licinius (reported by Zosimus); the plan was not carried out, as Constantine acted first.

Death

Early in 312, Constantine crossed the Alps into Italy. He defeated Maxentius' forces in several battles, and reached Rome late in October. It was expected that Maxentius tried the same strategy as against Severus and Galerius earlier, that is remaining in the well-defended city of Rome, and sit out a siege which would cost his enemy much more. For somewhat uncertain reasons, he abandoned this plan, however, and offered battle to Constantine near the Milvian Bridge on October 28, 312. Ancient sources usually attribute this action to superstition or (if pro-Constantinian) divine providence. Maxentius of course had consulted soothsayers before battle, as was customary practice, and it can be assumed that they reported favourable omens, esp. as the day of battle would be his dies imperii, the day of his accession to the throne (which was October 28, 306). What else may have motivated him, is open to speculation. The armies of Maxentius and Constantine met north of the city, some distance outside the walls, beyond the Tiber river on the Via Flaminia. Christian tradition, esp. Lactantius and Eusebius of Caesarea, claims that Constantine fought under the sign of the cross in that battle, revealed to him in a dream. Of the battle itself, not much is known – Constantine's forces defeated Maxentius's troops, who retreated to the Tiber, and in the chaos of the fleeing army trying to cross the river, Maxentius fell into the water and drowned. His body was found the next day and paraded through the city, and later sent to Africa, as a sign that he had surely perished.

Domestic policy

The internal affairs of Maxentius' rule are obscure to a large extent, as there is no source dealing with his reign explicitly and not influenced by later Constantinian propaganda. The main support of his rule was his acceptance in the city of Rome, still theoretically recognized as capital of the Empire, and (as with every emperor) the army; until 308, also the authority of his father. At first, he commanded only few troops, esp. the remains of the Praetorian Guard and the emperor's horse guard, and the urban cohorts at Rome. During the invasions of Severus and Galerius his army was enlarged by the defectors, and after the reconquest of Africa he withdraw some of the border garrisons to Italy. Still, his military power was never great, and he had to rely on the advantage of his position behind the Alps and the fortress of Rome. His standing in the city of Rome varied. He tried to secure his position there by granting privileges and demonstrating the renewed role of the city as capital by an extensive building programme. On the other hand, he could not entirely avoid to draw upon the financial resources of the Roman populace, and he probably had to levy taxes on Rome, too. When the Roman corn supply was cut short after the rebellion of Africa, famine broke out in the city, further undermining his rule, and riots seem to have claimed about 6,000 lives. Relations to the Senate were good at the beginning, but probably deteriorated when senators were obliged to support his rule with donations. Many of the high-ranking senators went over to Constantine after Maxentius' death and continued their careers without interruption. In religious affairs, Maxentius tolerated the Christians in his realm, though he himself supported the traditional pagan religion, which reminded of Rome's glorious past. He esp. revered Mars, who was also a deity often associate with his father Maximian. During his reign, the aftermaths of the persecution of Christians under Diocletian led to conflict in the church under the bishops Marcellus I and Eusebius, resulting in the banishment of both by the emperor.

Legacy

After Constantine's victory, Maxentius was systematically vilified and presented as a cruel, bloodthirsty and incompetent tyrant. While he was not counted under the persecutors of the Christians by early sources like Lactantius, under the influence of the official propaganda later Christian tradition framed Maxentius as hostile to Christianity as well. This image has left its traces in all of our sources and has dominated the view of Maxentius well into the 20th century, when a more extensive use and analysis of non-literary sources like coins and inscriptions have led to a more balanced image.

External links

- [http://www.roman-emperors.org/maxentiu.htm De imperatoribus Romanis] on Maxentius Category:312 deaths Category:Roman emperors Category:Murdered Roman emperors Category:Constantine Dynasty

October 28

October 28 is the 301st day of the year (302nd in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 64 days remaining.

Events

- 306 - Maxentius is proclaimed Roman emperor.
- 312 - Battle of Milvian Bridge: Constantine the Great defeats the forces of Maxentius.
- 1492 - Christopher Columbus lands in Cuba.
- 1516 - Battle of Yaunis Khan: Turkish forces under the Grand Vizier Sinan Pasha defeat the Mameluks near Gaza.
- 1531 - Battle of Amba Sel: Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi again defeats the army of Lebna Dengel, Emperor of Ethiopia. The southern part of Ethiopia falls under Imam Ahmad's control.
- 1538 - The first University of the New World is founded the Universidad Santo Tomás de Aquino
- 1776 - American Revolutionary War: Battle of White Plains - British forces arrive at White Plains, attack and capture Chatterton Hill from the Americans.
- 1864 - American Civil War: Second Battle of Fair Oaks ends - Union forces under General Ulysses S. Grant withdraw from Fair Oaks, Virginia, after failing to breach the Confederate defenses around Richmond, Virginia.
- 1868 - Thomas Edison applied for his first patent, the electric vote recorder.
- 1886 - In New York Harbor, US President Grover Cleveland dedicates the Statue of Liberty.
- 1918 - Czechoslovakia gains its independence from Austria-Hungary.
- 1918 - New Polish government in Western Galicia (Central Europe).
- 1919 - Prohibition begins: The U.S. Congress passes the Volstead Act over President Woodrow Wilson's veto.
- 1922 - March on Rome: Italian fascists led by Benito Mussolini march on Rome and take over the Italian government with the assistance of the Catholic Church; pope Pius XI declares that "Mussolini is a man sent by divine providence."
- 1936 - US President Franklin Roosevelt rededicates the Statue of Liberty on its 50th anniversary.
- 1940 - World War II: Italy invades Greece through Albanian and is the selected anniversary of Greece's entry into World War II. It is celebrated in Greece as "OXI" Day.
- 1942 - The Alaska Highway is completed.
- 1943 - The Philadelphia Experiment supposedly occurred.
- 1948 - Swiss chemist Paul Müller is awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his discovery of the insecticidal properties of DDT.
- 1949 - Georges Bidault becomes Prime Minister of France
- 1950 - The Jack Benny Show, starring Jack Benny, premieres (it ran for 15 years).
- 1955 - Bill Gates III was born in Seattle.
- 1958 - Angelo Giuseppe Roncalli becomes Pope and takes the name Pope John XXIII.
- 1962 - Cuban Missile Crisis: Soviet Union leader Nikita Khrushchev announces that he had ordered the removal of Soviet missile bases in Cuba.
- 1965 - French foreign minister Couve de Murville travels to Moscow.
- 1965 - Nostra Aetate, the "Declaration on the Relation of the Church with Non-Christian Religions" of the Second Vatican Council, is promulgated by Pope Paul VI; it absolves the Jews of the alleged killing of Jesus, reversing Innocent III's declaration from 760 years ago. In short, Pope Paul VI announces that the ecumenical council has decided that Jews are not collectively responsible for the killing of Christ.
- 1965 - In St. Louis, Missouri, the 630-foot-tall parabolic (catenarian) steel Gateway Arch is completed.
- 1970 - Land speed record set by Gary Gabelich in a rocket powered automobile called the Blue Flame
- 1976 - John D. Ehrlichman, former domestic policy adviser of President Nixon and convicted Watergate felon, arrives at the Swift Trail Camp minimum-security facility in southeastern Arizona.
- 1981 - The heavy metal band Metallica is founded in San Francisco.
- 1986 - The centennial of the Statue of Liberty's dedication is celebrated in New York Harbor.
- 1986 - Jeremy Bamber is found guilty of the murder of his parents, sister and twin nephews and is given five life sentences.
- 1988 - French manufacturer Roussel Uclaf states that it will resume distribution of the abortion drug RU-486.
- 1997 - The Dow Jones Industrial Average gains a record 337.17 points to close at 7,498.32.
- 1998 - An Air China jetliner is hijacked by disgruntled pilot Yuan Bin and flown to Taiwan.
- 2005 - Lewis Libby, vice president Dick Cheney's chief of staff, is indicted in the Valerie Plame case. Libby resigns later that day.

Births

- 1510 - St. Francis Borgia, Spanish duke and Jesuit priest (d. 1572)
- 1585 - Cornelius Jansen, Dutch bishop and religious reformer (d. 1638)
- 1691 - Peder Tordenskjold, Norwegian naval hero (d. 1720)
- 1703 - Antoine Deparcieux, French mathematician (d. 1768)
- 1718 - Ignacije Szentmartony, Croatian Jesuit missionary and geographer (d. 1793)
- 1793 - Eliphalet Remington, American firearms manufacturer (d. 1861)
- 1804 - Pierre François Verhulst, Belgian mathematician (d. 1849)
- 1818 (O.S.) - Ivan Turgenev, Russian writer (d. 1883)
- 1846 - Georges Auguste Escoffier, French chef (d. 1935)
- 1885 (O.S.) - Velimir Khlebnikov, Russian poet (d. 1922)
- 1892 - Dink Johnson, American musician (d. 1954)
- 1896 - Howard Hanson, American composer (d. 1981)
- 1902 - Elsa Lanchester, British-born actress (d. 1986)
- 1903 - Evelyn Waugh, English writer (d. 1966)
- 1907 - Edith Head, American costume designer (d. 1981)
- 1909 - Francis Bacon, Anglo-Irish painter (d. 1992)
- 1912 - Richard Doll, English epidemiologist (d. 2005)
- 1914 - Jonas Salk, American medical scientist (d. 1995)
- 1914 - Richard Laurence Millington Synge, English chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1994)
- 1915 - Paul Jarrico, American screenwriter (d. 1997)
- 1922 - Gershon Kingsley, German composer
- 1922 - Simon Muzenda, Zimbabwe politician (d. 2003)
- 1930 - Bernie Ecclestone, English racing official
- 1932 - Suzy Parker, American actress (d. 2003)
- 1937 - Charlie Daniels, American musician
- 1938 - Anne Perry, English-born novelist
- 1939 - Jane Alexander, American actress
- 1944 - Dennis Franz, American actor
- 1946 - Wim Jansen, Dutch football player and coach
- 1948 - Telma Hopkins, American singer
- 1949 - Bruce Jenner, American athlete
- 1950 - Sihem Bensedrine, Tunisian human rights activist
- 1955 - Bill Gates, American software pioneer
- 1963 - Lauren Holly, American actress
- 1963 - Eros Ramazzotti, Italian singer
- 1966 - Steve Atwater, American football player
- 1967 - Julia Roberts, American actress
- 1967 - John Romero, American video game designer
- 1968 - Ben Harper. American musician
- 1972 - Terrell Davis, American football player
- 1974 - Joaquin Phoenix, Puerto Rican-born actor
- 1979 - Aki Hakala, Finnish drummer (The Rasmus)
- 1980 - Alan Smith, English footballer
- 1981 - Milan Baros, Czech footballer

Deaths

- 312 - Maxentius, Roman emperor (b. c. 278)
- 1225 - Jien, Japanese poet and historian (b. 1155)
- 1412 - Margaret I of Denmark, queen of Haakon VI of Norway (b. 1353)
- 1485 - Rodolphus Agricola, Dutch humanist (b. 1443)
- 1520 - Pier Gerlofs Donia, Frisian pirate and freedom fighter
- 1568 - Ashikaga Yoshihide, Japanese shogun (b. 1539)
- 1627 - Jahangir, Mughal Emperor of India (b. 1569)
- 1639 - Stefano Landi, Italian composer (b. 1587)
- 1646 - William Dobson, English painter (b. 1610)
- 1661 - Agustín Moreto y Cavana, Spanish playwright (b. 1518)
- 1676 - Jean Desmarets, French writer (b. 1595)
- 1703 - John Wallis, English mathematician (b. 1616)
- 1704 - John Locke, English philosopher (b. 1632)
- 1708 - Prince George of Denmark, consort of Queen Anne of England (b. 1653)
- 1716 - Stephen Fox, English politician (b. 1627)
- 1740 - Empress Anna of Russia (b. 1693)
- 1754 - Friedrich von Hagedorn, German poet (b. 1708)
- 1755 - Joseph Bodin de Boismortier, French composer (b. 1689)
- 1763 - Heinrich, count von Brühl, German statesman (b. 1700)
- 1768 - Michel Blavet, French flutist (b. 1700)
- 1792 - Paul Möhring, German physician and scientist (b. 1710)
- 1792 - John Smeaton, English civil engineer (b. 1724)
- 1800 - Artemas Ward, American politician and soldier (b. 1727)
- 1806 - Charlotte Turner Smith, English poet and novelist (b. 1749)
- 1818 - Abigail Adams, First Lady of the United States (b. 1744)
- 1841 - Johan August Arfwedson, Swedish chemist (b. 1792)
- 1857 - Louis Eugène Cavaignac, French soldier and politician (b. 1802)
- 1877 - Robert Swinhoe, British naturalist (b. 1835)
- 1879 - Marie Roch Louis Reybaud, French writer (b. 1799)
- 1897 - Hercules Robinson, British colonial administrator (b. 1824)
- 1899 - Ottmar Mergenthaler, German-born inventor (tuberculosis) (b. 1854)
- 1900 - Max Müller, German-born orientalist (b. 1823)
- 1916 - Cleveland Abbe, American meteorologist (b. 1838)
- 1916 - Oswald Boelcke, German pilot (b. 1891)
- 1917 - Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg (b. 1831)
- 1918 - Ulisse Dini, Italian mathematician (b. 1845)
- 1929 - Bernhard von Bülow, Chancellor of G

Arch of Constantine

General description

Decoration

Attic

Main section

Inner sides of the archways

Inscriptions

References

External links

Triumphal arch

Roman triumphal arches

Post-Roman triumphal arches

List of triumphal arches

Algeria

Australia

Austria

Belgium

Croatia

Canada

England

France

Gambia

Germany

Greece

India

Iraq

Ireland

Italy

Korea

Laos

Libya

Romania

Russia

Spain

Syria

Turkey

Ukraine

United States

See also

External link

Colosseum

Construction

Games

History of the name Colosseum

Description

Later history

Hollywood and the Colosseum

Flora

See also

External links

Constantine I of the Roman Empire

Early life

Constantine and Christianity

Persian Reaction

Constantine's Life and Actions after The Edict of Milan

Later Life

Constantine's Legal Standards

Constantine's Courts and Appointees

Constantine's Legacy

Legend and Donation of Constantine

Constantine in Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia

Notes

See also

External links

References and Further reading

Maxentius

Birth and early life

Accession

Emperor

Death

Domestic policy

Legacy

External links

October 28

Events

Births

Deaths